TECHNIQUES USED IN DIFFERENT STEPS OF DECISION MAKING

In the models of decision making,any systematic approach to decision making starts with a proper definition of the problem. You will often experience that a problem well defined is a problem half-solved. 

A "fair" approach to decision-making demands that criteria" should be explicitly developed before the alternatives are generated and not after.Once you have developed the criteria, keep them aside and forget about them at the time of generation of the alternatives. This dissociation of criteria from the alternative-generation phase will improve your chance of coming up with a reasonably sufficient number of alternatives.

Identification of Alternatives 

Three means for generating alternatives are particularly well-known. These are brainstorming, synectics, and nominal grouping.

1. Brainstorming: 

What? 

It involves the use of a group whose members is presented with a problem and is asked to develop as many potential solutions as possible.

Why- The Benefit

Brainstorming is based on the premise that when people interact in a free and uninhibited atmosphere they will, generates creative ideas.That is, as one person generates an idea it serves to stimulate' the thinking of others.

Participants: 

It usually involve six to eight participants and run from thirty minutes to an hour.

How? - Brainstorming is governed by four important rules:

1. Criticism is prohibited Judgement of ideas must be withheld until all ideas have been generated. It is believed that criticism inhibits the free flow of ideas and group creativity.
2. Freewheeling' is welcome. The wilder the idea the better. It is better to filter down the ideas instead of thinking-up
3. Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of ideas, the greater the likelihood of an outstanding solution.
4. Combination and improvement are sought. In addition to contributing ideas of their own, group members suggest how ideas of others can be improved, or how two or more ideas can be combined into still another idea.

Limitations:

1. It is usually most effective when a problem is simple and specific.
2. Brainstorming sessions are time consuming and, therefore, can be costly
3. Brainstorming often produces superficial solutions.

2. Synectics:

What? 

Members of a synectics group are typically selected to represent a variety of backgrounds and training. An experienced group leader plays a vital role in this approach. The leader states a problem for the group to consider

How?

1. The group reacts by stating the problem as they understand it. Only after the nature of the problem is thoroughly reviewed and analysed does the group proceed to offer potential solutions.
2. Various methods are employed to "invoke the preconscious mind". These may include role-playing, the use of analogies, paradoxes, metaphors, and other thought-provoking exercises.
3. A technical expert is ordinarily present to assist the group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas.
4. Thus, in contrast to brainstorming where the judgement of ideas is-withheld until, all ideas have been generated, judicial evaluations of members' suggestions do take place from time to time.

Why? - The Benefit

1. The intended purpose is to induce fantasies and novel ideas that will modify existing thought patterns in order to stimulate creative alternatives
2. It is from this complex set of interactions that a final solution hopefully emerges.
3. Its sophisticated manner makes it much more appropriate for complex and technical problems.

Limitations:

1. Synectics has been less widely used than brainstorming. 
2. It can be time-consuming and costly

3. Nominal Grouping:

What: 

Nominal grouping does not rely on free association of ideas, and it purposely attempts to reduce verbal interaction

How: 

It generally follows a highly structured procedure involving the following stages:

Stage 1: Seven to ten individuals 'with different backgrounds and training are brought together and familiarised with a selected problem such as, "What alternatives are available for achieving a set of of ,objectives?"

Stage 2: Each group member is asked to prepare a list of ideas in response to the identified problem, working silently and alone

Stage 3: After a period of ten to fifteen minutes, group members share their ideas, one at a time, in a round-robin manner. A group facilitator records the ideas on a blackboard or flip chart for all to see.

Stage 4: A period of structured interaction follows in which group members openly discuss and evaluate each recorded idea. At this point ideas may be reworded, combined, deleted, or added.

Stage 5: Each group member votes by privately ranking the presented ideas in order of their perceived importance. Following a brief discussion of the vote, a final secret ballot is conducted.

Why?- The Benefit

1. It minimises the inhibiting effects of group interaction in the initial generation of alternative solutions. That is, group members must generate their own original ideas rather than "hitch-hike" on the ideas of others.
2. Use of a roundrobin recording procedure allows risk-inclined group members to state risky solutions early, making it easier for less secure participants to engage in similar disclosure

Limitations

It can be time-consuming and, therefore, costly.

4. Creative Thinking:

What? 

It uses all of human capacities-analytic and creative, conscious and subconscious-and seek both individual and group involvement in this stage of decision making process.

How?

1. Preparation  (Concious state is leveraged) : 

1. Saturation - Investing the problem in all directions to become fully familiar with it, its setting, causes, and effects
2. Deliberation - Mulling over these ideas, analysing and challenging them, viewing them from different optics

2. Latent Period  (Unconscious state is leveraged)

1. Incubation: Relaxing, switching off, and turning the problem over to the unconscious mind.
2. Illumination: Emerging with possible answersdramatic, perhaps off beat, but fresh and new.

3. Presentation  (Concious state is leveraged again):

1. Verification: Clarifying and flushing out the idea, testing it against the criterion of appropriateness.
2. Accommodation: Trying the solution out on other people and other problems

Evaluation of alternatives

Each alternative must be evaluated in terms of its strengths and weaknesses, benefits and costs, advantages and disadvantages in achieving organisational goals. 

Since there are usually both positive and negative aspects of every alternative, most evaluations involve a balancing or trade-off of anticipated consequences. 

Needless to say, such assessments should be as objective as possible.

Evaluation of the relative merits of various alternatives may be performed by a single manager or by a group.

An evaluation may be completely intuitive or it may be scientific, using analytical tools and procedures associated with what is known as operations research (OR). More than likely, it will employ a combination of both

approaches.

Whatever the basis of evaluation, the more systematic the assessment, the more likely it is that the resulting judgements will be accurate and complete.

We must select the one alternative with the greatest perceived probability of meeting organisational objectives.

Theoretically, if the identification and evaluation of alternatives has been properly. handled, making a choice should be an easy matter, The most desirable alternative will be obvious

Implementation of Decision

Once a plan (course of action) has been selected, appropriate actions must be taken to assure that it is implemented. Implementation is crucial to success of an enterprise.

The best plans in the world are absolutely worthless if they cannot be implemented.

You must communicate the chosen course of action, gather support for it, and assign resources to see that it is carried out.

Reference & Source: Indira Gandhi National Open University :: School of Management studies :: Study Material for Management Functions and Behaviour